The Snowball Earth

Some very strange events have left their signs in the rocks of Precambrian time, the nine-tenths of Earths history before fossils became common. Various observations point to times when the whole planet appears to have gripped by colossal ice ages. Big-thinker Joseph Kirschvink first assembled the evidence in the late 1980s, and in a 1992 paper he dubbed the situation the snowball earth. Evidence for the Snowball Earth What did Kirschvink see? Many deposits of Neoproterozoic age (between 1000 and about 550 million years old) show the distinctive signs of ice agesyet they involved carbonate rocks, which are made only in the tropics.Magnetic evidence from these ice-age carbonates showed that indeed they were very near the equator. And there is nothing to suggest that the Earth was tilted on its axis any differently from today.And the unusual rocks known as banded iron formation appeared at this time, after an absence of more than a billion years. They have never reappeared. These facts led Kirschvink to a wild surmise glaciers had not just spread over the poles, as they do today, but had reached all the way to the equator, turning the Earth into a global snowball. That would set up feedback cycles reinforcing the ice age for quite some time: First, white ice, on land and upon the ocean, would reflect the suns light into space and leave the area cold.Second, the glaciated continents would emerge as the ice took water from the ocean, and the newly exposed continental shelves would reflect sunlight rather than absorbing it as dark seawater does.Third, the huge quantities of rock ground into dust by the glaciers would take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, reducing the greenhouse effect and reinforcing the global refrigeration. These tied in with another event: the supercontinent Rodinia had just broken apart into many smaller continents. Small continents are wetter than large ones, hence more likely to support glaciers. The area of continental shelves must have increased, too, thus all three factors were reinforced. The banded iron formations suggested to Kirschvink that the sea, blanketed in ice, had gone stagnant and run out of oxygen. This would allow dissolved iron to build up instead of circulating through living things as it does now. As soon as the ocean currents and continental weathering resumed, the banded iron formations would be quickly laid down. The key to breaking the glaciers grip was volcanoes, which continually emit carbon dioxide derived from old subducted sediments (more on volcanism). In Kirschvinks vision, the ice would shield the air from the weathering rocks and allow CO2 to build up, restoring the greenhouse. At some tipping point the ice would melt, a geochemical cascade would deposit the banded iron formations, and snowball Earth would return to normal Earth. The Arguments Begin The snowball earth idea lay dormant until the late 1990s. Later researchers noted that thick layers of carbonate rocks capped the Neoproterozoic glacial deposits. These cap carbonates made sense as a product of the high-CO2 atmosphere that routed the glaciers, combining with calcium from the newly exposed land and sea. And recent work has established three Neoproterozoic mega-ice ages: the Sturtian, Marinoan and Gaskiers glaciations at about 710, 635 and 580 million years ago respectively. The questions arise as to why these happened, when and where they happened, what triggered them, and a hundred other details. A wide range of experts found reasons to argue against or quibble with the snowball earth, which is a natural and normal part of science. Biologists saw Kirschvinks scenario as looking too extreme. He had suggested in 1992 that metazoansprimitive higher animalsarose through evolution after the global glaciers had melted and opened new habitats. But metazoan fossils were found in much older rocks, so obviously the snowball earth had not killed them. A less extreme slushball earth hypothesis has arisen that protects the biosphere by positing thinner ice and milder conditions. Snowball partisans argue their model cannot be stretched that far. To an extent, this appears to be a case of different specialists taking their familiar concerns more seriously than a generalist would. The more distant observer can easily picture an icelocked planet that has enough warm refuges to preserve life while still giving the glaciers the upper hand. But the ferment of research and discussion will surely yield a truer and more sophisticated picture of the late Neoproterozoic. And whether it was a snowball, slushball or something without a catchy name, the type of event that seized our planet at that time is impressive to contemplate. PS: Joseph Kirschvink introduced the snowball earth in a very short paper in a very large book, so speculative that the editors didnt even have someone review it. But publishing it was a great service. An earlier example is Harry Hesss groundbreaking paper on seafloor spreading, written in 1959 and circulated privately before it found an uneasy home in another large book published in 1962. Hess called it an essay in geopoetry, and ever since the word has had a special significance. I do not hesitate to call Kirschvink a geopoet as well. For instance, read about his polar wander proposal.

Personal Narrative The End Of The World - 766 Words

THE WORLD WAS finally ending. There were less than 10,000 people -and non people- left on Earth. And the Others were not finished with us. Unfortunately. There was still Sammy, Ben, Ringer, Teacup, Dombo and Poundcake and I left that I knew personally. But we were all in danger. No matter what we promised to protect each other. No matter what the circumstance are, or what is at risk. I dont actually want to help save anyone but myself and Sams. But, I agreed anyway to make everyone happy. It’s like insurance, so I guess it won’t be that bad. The first couple of days of the agreement were fine, only because no one was in danger. But then came the next day. Ringer and Ben were out looking for a new place to move our camp. They had†¦show more content†¦Not that I wanted to die, I just had a promise to keep. Now I understood the purpose of our little agreement. She obeyed out of fear for herself, not because I told her to. I shot an entire clip before moving around. Ben appeared out of the bush about ten yards to my left and said â€Å"Cassie, Ringer is down! Come quick!† Teacup and I raced over to Ben on the ground next to Ringer. She was bleeding like crazy. It was everywhere. Ringer was close to bawling her eyes out because she was is so much pain. She was shot in her lower back. None of us really knew what to do, so we just tried to wrap the wound and apply pressure to stop the bleeding. That’s what Dumbo does†¦ I think. We had to get her back to our camp. Ringer shouts in pain as we lift her off the ground. But, she doesn’t squirm, which is good. What if we lose her?! Let’s hope not. Here we come Dumbo. Since Teacup was too small to carry Ringer, she lead the way and also tried to protect us from the back where the Others still waited. Thank God camp wasn’t far, because Ringer was no Teacup. We get there and Dumbo greets us instantly. He has a worried look on his face that says This is not good and unexpected. She might not make it. Sams and Poundcake also greet us, not quite as worried though. We all stand around as Dumbo goes into full surgegen mode. He rips off the bottom half of her shirt and begins cleaning the bullet hole. She winces in agony every time another gauzeShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Scribner s Article, Scribner756 Words   |  4 Pagesand personal narrative. The whole class was thrown for a curve ball when we were assigned Knoblauch for our first assignment. After rereading the material a few times, I began to understand what Knoblauch was trying to convey to us. His argument states that there isn’t a definite definition of literacy. He breaks literacy into four different categories. Functional literacy, critical literacy, liberal literacy and cultural literacy. Out of all the categories, I connected to literacy as personal growthRead MoreNarrative Is The Root Of Some Fields1510 Words   |  7 PagesNarrative is the root of some fields which includes education, rhetoric, literature, religion, law, history: culture (Wilson, 1989). It can be seen as a tool to create traditions and symbols as means of communication and it is a source to understand and strengthen the identity of the organisation (Kroeze and Keulen, 2013). As a conceptual theme, narrative becomes a self-conscious system and a reflexive field. In other words, the role of narrative in personal lives is to show how it can be utilizedRead More Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay907 Words   |  4 PagesNarrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The tone established in the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass is unusual in that from the beginning to the end the focus has been shifted. In the beginning of the narrative Douglass seems to fulfill every stereotypical slavery theme. He is a young black slave who at first cannot read and is very naà ¯ve in understanding his situation. As a child put into slavery Douglass does not have the knowledge to know about his surroundings and theRead MoreWhat Should I Write About Your Personal Narrative Essay932 Words   |  4 Pagesbecomes necessary to type personal narratives, without so much as a hint of a topic, it can drive a student to some rather interesting conclusions. Some of these conclusions may be as simple as â€Å"Hmm, what should I write about?† Or perhaps more complicated and â€Å"Great, it’s 2:00 A.M. the day the paper is due and I have nothing typed.† No matter the situation the creative thinking process can be greatly li mited, thus I present to you the narrative of me typing my personal narrative essay. It began ratherRead MoreNarrative Voice of Frederick Douglass920 Words   |  4 PagesNarrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass The tone established in the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass is unusual in that from the beginning to the end the focus has been shifted. In the beginning of the narrative Douglass seems to fulfill every stereotypical slavery theme. He is a young black slave who at first cannot read and is very naà ¯ve in understanding his situation. As a child put into slavery Douglass does not have the knowledge to know about his surroundings and the worldRead MoreRigoberta Menchu Literary Analysis871 Words   |  4 Pagescompelling narrative highlighting indigenous life during the Guatemalan Civil War. Since publication, her narrative has achieved world acclaim as it was awarded the Nobel Peace in 1992. Such acclaim, however, has incited critics to question her narrative, as does anthropologist David Stoll in Rigoberta Menchu and the Story of All Poor Guatemalans. Although the questioning of historical accounts is valid, David Stoll’s challenge of Menchu serves no purpose o ther than to discredit Menchus personal narrativeRead MoreThe Development of Identity1419 Words   |  6 Pagesidentity. â€Å"Identity† is currently used in two concurrent senses, one of which is â€Å"personal† and the other â€Å"social† (Schà ¶pflin). In the first aspect of identity, an individual’s identity is some distinctive trait, or a fixed category, that that person views as socially significant but more-or-less unchangeable. In other words, an identity is given to you. One of the key principles of developmental psychology, applicable to personal identity change, is continuity and discontinuity. In simple terms, this discussesRead MoreEssay about Baldwins Notes to a Native Son1712 Words   |  7 Pagesearth would blaze with the glory of fathers and sons.† This quotation by James Arthur Baldwin helps to bring about one of the main points of his essay, â€Å"Notes of a Native Son.† Baldwin’s composition was published in 1 955, and based mostly around the World War II era. This essay was written about a decade after his father’s death, and it reflected back on his relationship with his father. At points in the essay, Baldwin expressed hatred, love, contempt, and pride for his father, and Baldwin broke downRead MoreMoments and Time, Themes in the Narrative Beauty: When the Other Dancer Is the Self, by Alice Walker836 Words   |  3 Pages Time in Moments, Not Minutes When it comes to personal narratives, time is an important element. But what is time? Time can be defined in many different ways. When people think of time, the truth is that there are many definitions. Time can be seen as seconds, minutes, hours and days, but that’s not how everyone sees it. Time can also be defined by the moments in one’s life, not by the minutes that go past but by the significant times in a person’s life that defines lives. People can say, â€Å"WhenRead MoreEquiano s From The Interesting Narrative Of Olaudah Equiano980 Words   |  4 PagesOlaudah Equiano’s â€Å"From the Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano† is written with the intent of ending the slave trade and aiding the abolitionists’ movement. His narrative tells his personal story of kidnapping, being sold into slavery and his experience in the middle passage. According to this account Olaudah Equiano grew up in Africa with a large family. He was captured and sold into slavery at age eleven. As an adult he became an opposing voice to slavery. This autobiography was published

Concept of Sustainable Development Free Essays

The concept of sustainable development is based on the rising environmental problems, socio-economic issues to do with poverty and inequality, and concerns about a healthy future for humanity. There is no definitive definition of sustainable development as it is thought of differently by many other people throughout the world. Sustainable Development is founded on the principle that mankind should advance without causing permanent damage to ecosystems and the resources they provide, how these resources are used, the processes that are used to get these resources and who has access to them. We will write a custom essay sample on Concept of Sustainable Development or any similar topic only for you Order Now All the above stated should be taken into consideration without posing risks to future generations. Sustainable development can be seen as as the connection between environment, society and economy, which is thought of being separate yet connected bodies. The economy is often given priority in policies and the environment is viewed as apart from humans. They are directly linked where the economy is dependent on society and the environment, and society is dependent on, and within the environment. Issues to do with society such as sustainability of communities and the maintenance of cultural diversity are often sidelined. Economics came to be the leading issue of human relations with economic growth, defined by increasing production, as the main priority. Changing the quality of growth, meeting important needs, merging environment and economics in decision making while emphasizing human development, participation in decisions and equality in benefits are things that can be done to eliminate poverty, meet human needs and ensure that all get a fair share of resources. Social justice today and in the future is a key component of the concept of sustainable development. This is seen as the key to humanity’s well-being and, through growth, poverty would be reduced. Most countries have no programs or policies that offer any real hope of narrowing the growing gap between rich and poor. This has caused damage to the environment which we depend on, with a downward spiral of poverty and environmental degradation. Environmental problems threaten people’s health, livelihoods and lives and threaten future generations. Global prosperity and human well-being can be achieved through increased global trade and industry. Green engineering is designing, building and manufacturing of products and processes including energy utilization and waste production that has the least negative impact on the environment possible. It includes all of the engineering disciplines, and is based off of current engineering design principles. Green Engineering can be defined as environmentally conscious attitudes, values, and principles, combined with science, technology, and engineering practice, all directed toward improving local and global environmental quality. It is usually used when referring to buildings, but it can be used for automobiles, lights or any other sort of system or device that requires engineering. Current design concepts in automobiles that are considered environmentally friendly are hybrid technologies; flex fuel vehicles, and even electricity. Though green engineering is somewhat more expensive, many countries, recognizing the value of this type of engineering by offering tax breaks and other incentives to the people and companies that incorporate its use. Green engineers need to understand how building materials, techniques and other components can be made in an environmentally-friendly way. This may include the use of solar powered appliances, especially water heaters, solar lights or windows and other design elements. Elements outside the building, such as the irrigation system and other landscaping features need to be taken into consideration also. It is likely that in the very near future we will be seeing â€Å"green cities† where cities are constructed to be healthy and environmentally friendly environments thus alleviating issues such as poverty in inequality within society. References 1. Abrahammson, K. V. 1997. Paradigms of sustainability. In S. Sorlin, ed. The road towards sustainability, A historical perspective, A sustainable Baltic Region, The Baltic University programme,Uppsalla University, pp. 30-35. 2. Hanna, S. Munasinghe, M. 1995. eds. Property rights in a social and ecological context, Case study and design apllications, The Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics and the World Bank, Washington D. C. 3. OECD. 1997. Environmental indicators for agriculture, Paris. 4. Robinson, J. Tinker, J. 1995. Reconciling ecological, economic and social imperatives: Toward an analytical framework, SDRI Discussion Papers Series, 1995-1, Sustainable Development Institute. Vancouver, Canada. 5. Anastas, P. T. , and Zimmerman, J. B. , â€Å"Design through the Twelve Principles of Green Engineering†, Env. Sci. and Tech. , 37, 5, 94A-101A, 2003. How to cite Concept of Sustainable Development, Papers

Analyzing Demand In Healthcare

Question: Write an essay on Analyzing demand in healthcare. Answer: Analyzing demand in healthcare from the economist perspective starts with the different primary key terms in health economics these are ordered which refers to the services in healthcare that amounts to consumer desires at given price and income. Health care need relates to the measure and type of duty that efficiently and effectively improves health. Utilization is the number of different services that are consumed. I agree with the statement that doctors have generated demand in healthcare, essentially termed as a doctor's driven demand. The reason for this is if the physician creates the demand for his services at his own will, he could face a drop in the market of the consumer-physician ratio simply due to the increase of utilization of his services without lowering the cost. Increasing the number of the doctors density could result in the growth of the healthcare expenditure with no benefit to the patient. The governments have put in place measure in the supply of medical manpower or control on utilization as a counting strategy. If the price-output decisions of the doctor were affected by other external factors to determine demand, then increase in usage could be achieved by lowering the costs. In that way, the idea would be value by the patient but this cannot be economically viable it would also result in high health care expenditure. Physicians manipulate the patient's demand for services. Doctors always deny the existent that kind of power in exploiting for all personal gain. The doctors can actually manage the demand for their services. It has been observed that when the fee charges in hospitals are reduced and depressed, the per capital service utilization of the physicians tends to rise in partial or whole compensation of the lowered price. The per capita usage also tends to grow more with the increase in the physician-population ratio. Determinants of the demand and supply of healthcare Ill-health Ill- health is the primary determinant as the request for healthcare comes as a result of the need for health services. The medical care is irregular and cannot be predicted, and that makes medical claim different from all other commodities. The supply for the healthcare demand is met when there is the availability of the medical personnel or physicians; these situations make the health care application dependent on the doctors. The demand for the particular type of service produced by a given supplier affects the quantity of that service will to people for treatment purposes. Economic determinants These are the variables either direct or indirect cost that is incurred in the process of therapy. The total cost includes the pricing of the service to the consumer, the travel expenses, all the income lost during the period receiving the service, and the non-money cost which is the time required for the services. The price of treatment is an important determinant of the demand for healthcare services. This includes the direct cost of therapy such as the consultancy services given by the physicians, services delivered all which are aimed at utilization of health services. The price of health services can have resulted either in reducing at least on the goods which are the consumption of healthcare or choose to the other commodities or both the products. The change in the price of healthcare or medical services does not affect the demand. However in the shift to high price elasticity of demand for the medical services, there is a drop in the request of the medical service. The physical availability of the healthcare providers has an effect on the utilization of the medical services. The implication is that the consumer of the health services gives value to the time spent on the event of visiting the health facilities. The waiting time for the customer to get the medical services. It is viewed as the availability of the physicians and the efficiency of the health practitioner in this case. It is referred to as the opportunity cost of waiting time of the consumer to the supplier in the medical intensive care. The perception of need determinants This is concerned about the attitude of the individual consumer, the values and the taste of the services. The usefulness of the modern health treatment is one of the areas where the patient would focus on, the perceived severity of the illness, and the quality of health caregivers. At the physician provision of services, quality is taken as a key determinant as to the choice of the health care provider. The individual consumer perceives the quality, and the health professional has a different view on the same, which is essentially defined by the number of the medical staff, the presence of adequate drugs, a functional unit laboratory, the availability of power or electricity. These factors have a substantial positive impact on the demand for the medical services and all influences the choice of the medical health service provider. Regarding how useful medical treatment are efficient, all these depend on on with the individual cultural and psychological information towards a physicia n. Also, the level of education plays a part in the decision making of a patient on how the services in healthcare are to be delivered. This is evident in the practice of the patient-centered treatment in major hospital, this mode of treatment is only useful when the health professionals are offering their best quality services. The quality of health services can vary from an individual to another; this is because it has numerous views, including the direct effectiveness of the treatment to the patient, the cost imposed on the patient in the occasional visits. The side effects of the services given, the politeness of the healthcare provider that significantly affects the customer satisfaction, also the opening hours of the healthcare facilities and the time one waits to be served in the customers turn over. So going to the doctor demand must be driven by the kind of services enjoyed by the consumer which to them take as a medical necessity. The physicians make some quality improvements which reduces the demand for health care. For example in the high-quality care reduces the occasional visit hence the request for care reduces as that of quality increases. Individual income The preference and choice of the healthcare services is a major factor, in the microeconomic theory of consumer behavior. The health seeking behavior of a person is dependent on the income state of the individual. All consumers of health require some income to be able to pay the cost of the healthcare service. The access to the better facility come with extra charges, the increase in income leads to higher demand for health care services. For individuals with particular health status or conditions, the changes in the prices of medical affect the needs of the services. Health insurance and the demand for healthcare The insurance aims to reduce the variability in a person's income and pools risk with a large number of individuals. With this, the population can cater for the cost of healthcare. The doctors induced demand will be high as the people can access the healthcare utilization, and this tends to rise the demand for healthcare. All the money paid to the health insurance can get interested and indeed is paid out to the health services when the consumer gets sick. The health insurance would not be of importance if every person had average needs. The insurance makes it possible to obtain health services without going bankrupt. Due to the results of the uncertainty all health illness and medical expenditures are not predictable, the policies cover for hospitalizations, serious injuries, and other modern treatments that can be very expensive to pay as an individual patient. On the physicians end the demand for healthcare with being in his favor as the gains and benefits will be paid by the insu rance companies that covers the patients. The market for health insurance will be affected by various factors which include the probability of occurrence of the illness. Also the intensity of loss about income which is the cost of the disease, and lastly the price or premiums paid to the insurance companies increase in the prices results to fewer individual insure against a given event. Conclusions The demand for healthcare can vary considerably and has many dimensions. The major one has to do with the quality of services offered by the healthcare providers. The relate to the productivity of the healthcare service determined by the training of the doctor, the technology in place. So it's right to suggest that the earlier assumption that the physician the demand for healthcare is doctor driven because if the physicians sufficiently have the adequate requirements, then demand is motivated by the fulfillment of the activities as by medical necessity. References Cretin, S., N., Duan, A. P., Williams, X. Gu and Shi Y. (1988). The Modeling the Effects of Insurance on Health Utilization in China. Cropper, M. L.( 1977). Health, Investment in Health, and Occupational Choice. Journal of Political Economy 85(6): 127394. Dunlop, D. W., and Martins J. M.. (1995). An International Assessment of Health Care Financing: Lessons for Developing Countries. Economic Development Institute (EDI) Seminar Series. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Gertler, P, and Jeffrey H. (1997). Strategies for Pricing Publicly Provided Health Services. Policy Research Working Paper (1762). World Bank, Washington, D.C. Manning, W. G, Joseph P. N, Naihua D, and Emmet B. K, Arleen L, and Susan M. M. (1987). Health Insurance and the Demand for Medical Care: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment. American Economic Review 77(3): 25177. Manski, C. and Daniel M (1981). Structural Analysis of Discrete Data with Econometric Applications. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. McFadden, Daniel. (1981). Econometric Models of Probabilistic Choice. In C. Manski and D. McFadden, eds., Structural Analysis of Discrete Data with Econometric Applications. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Newhouse, J (1993). Free for All: Lessons from the RAND Health Insurance Experiment. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Phelps, C. E. (1992). Health Economics. New York: HarperCollins. Smith, M. C., and Garner, D. D. (1974). Effects of a Medicaid Program on Prescription Drug Availability and Acquisition. Medical Care 12(7): 57181. World Bank. (1993). World Development Report 1993. New York: Oxford University Press.

Analyzing Demand In Healthcare

Question: Write an essay on Analyzing demand in healthcare. Answer: Analyzing demand in healthcare from the economist perspective starts with the different primary key terms in health economics these are ordered which refers to the services in healthcare that amounts to consumer desires at given price and income. Health care need relates to the measure and type of duty that efficiently and effectively improves health. Utilization is the number of different services that are consumed. I agree with the statement that doctors have generated demand in healthcare, essentially termed as a doctor's driven demand. The reason for this is if the physician creates the demand for his services at his own will, he could face a drop in the market of the consumer-physician ratio simply due to the increase of utilization of his services without lowering the cost. Increasing the number of the doctors density could result in the growth of the healthcare expenditure with no benefit to the patient. The governments have put in place measure in the supply of medical manpower or control on utilization as a counting strategy. If the price-output decisions of the doctor were affected by other external factors to determine demand, then increase in usage could be achieved by lowering the costs. In that way, the idea would be value by the patient but this cannot be economically viable it would also result in high health care expenditure. Physicians manipulate the patient's demand for services. Doctors always deny the existent that kind of power in exploiting for all personal gain. The doctors can actually manage the demand for their services. It has been observed that when the fee charges in hospitals are reduced and depressed, the per capital service utilization of the physicians tends to rise in partial or whole compensation of the lowered price. The per capita usage also tends to grow more with the increase in the physician-population ratio. Determinants of the demand and supply of healthcare Ill-health Ill- health is the primary determinant as the request for healthcare comes as a result of the need for health services. The medical care is irregular and cannot be predicted, and that makes medical claim different from all other commodities. The supply for the healthcare demand is met when there is the availability of the medical personnel or physicians; these situations make the health care application dependent on the doctors. The demand for the particular type of service produced by a given supplier affects the quantity of that service will to people for treatment purposes. Economic determinants These are the variables either direct or indirect cost that is incurred in the process of therapy. The total cost includes the pricing of the service to the consumer, the travel expenses, all the income lost during the period receiving the service, and the non-money cost which is the time required for the services. The price of treatment is an important determinant of the demand for healthcare services. This includes the direct cost of therapy such as the consultancy services given by the physicians, services delivered all which are aimed at utilization of health services. The price of health services can have resulted either in reducing at least on the goods which are the consumption of healthcare or choose to the other commodities or both the products. The change in the price of healthcare or medical services does not affect the demand. However in the shift to high price elasticity of demand for the medical services, there is a drop in the request of the medical service. The physical availability of the healthcare providers has an effect on the utilization of the medical services. The implication is that the consumer of the health services gives value to the time spent on the event of visiting the health facilities. The waiting time for the customer to get the medical services. It is viewed as the availability of the physicians and the efficiency of the health practitioner in this case. It is referred to as the opportunity cost of waiting time of the consumer to the supplier in the medical intensive care. The perception of need determinants This is concerned about the attitude of the individual consumer, the values and the taste of the services. The usefulness of the modern health treatment is one of the areas where the patient would focus on, the perceived severity of the illness, and the quality of health caregivers. At the physician provision of services, quality is taken as a key determinant as to the choice of the health care provider. The individual consumer perceives the quality, and the health professional has a different view on the same, which is essentially defined by the number of the medical staff, the presence of adequate drugs, a functional unit laboratory, the availability of power or electricity. These factors have a substantial positive impact on the demand for the medical services and all influences the choice of the medical health service provider. Regarding how useful medical treatment are efficient, all these depend on on with the individual cultural and psychological information towards a physicia n. Also, the level of education plays a part in the decision making of a patient on how the services in healthcare are to be delivered. This is evident in the practice of the patient-centered treatment in major hospital, this mode of treatment is only useful when the health professionals are offering their best quality services. The quality of health services can vary from an individual to another; this is because it has numerous views, including the direct effectiveness of the treatment to the patient, the cost imposed on the patient in the occasional visits. The side effects of the services given, the politeness of the healthcare provider that significantly affects the customer satisfaction, also the opening hours of the healthcare facilities and the time one waits to be served in the customers turn over. So going to the doctor demand must be driven by the kind of services enjoyed by the consumer which to them take as a medical necessity. The physicians make some quality improvements which reduces the demand for health care. For example in the high-quality care reduces the occasional visit hence the request for care reduces as that of quality increases. Individual income The preference and choice of the healthcare services is a major factor, in the microeconomic theory of consumer behavior. The health seeking behavior of a person is dependent on the income state of the individual. All consumers of health require some income to be able to pay the cost of the healthcare service. The access to the better facility come with extra charges, the increase in income leads to higher demand for health care services. For individuals with particular health status or conditions, the changes in the prices of medical affect the needs of the services. Health insurance and the demand for healthcare The insurance aims to reduce the variability in a person's income and pools risk with a large number of individuals. With this, the population can cater for the cost of healthcare. The doctors induced demand will be high as the people can access the healthcare utilization, and this tends to rise the demand for healthcare. All the money paid to the health insurance can get interested and indeed is paid out to the health services when the consumer gets sick. The health insurance would not be of importance if every person had average needs. The insurance makes it possible to obtain health services without going bankrupt. Due to the results of the uncertainty all health illness and medical expenditures are not predictable, the policies cover for hospitalizations, serious injuries, and other modern treatments that can be very expensive to pay as an individual patient. On the physicians end the demand for healthcare with being in his favor as the gains and benefits will be paid by the insu rance companies that covers the patients. The market for health insurance will be affected by various factors which include the probability of occurrence of the illness. Also the intensity of loss about income which is the cost of the disease, and lastly the price or premiums paid to the insurance companies increase in the prices results to fewer individual insure against a given event. Conclusions The demand for healthcare can vary considerably and has many dimensions. The major one has to do with the quality of services offered by the healthcare providers. The relate to the productivity of the healthcare service determined by the training of the doctor, the technology in place. So it's right to suggest that the earlier assumption that the physician the demand for healthcare is doctor driven because if the physicians sufficiently have the adequate requirements, then demand is motivated by the fulfillment of the activities as by medical necessity. References Cretin, S., N., Duan, A. P., Williams, X. Gu and Shi Y. (1988). The Modeling the Effects of Insurance on Health Utilization in China. Cropper, M. L.( 1977). Health, Investment in Health, and Occupational Choice. Journal of Political Economy 85(6): 127394. Dunlop, D. W., and Martins J. M.. (1995). An International Assessment of Health Care Financing: Lessons for Developing Countries. Economic Development Institute (EDI) Seminar Series. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Gertler, P, and Jeffrey H. (1997). Strategies for Pricing Publicly Provided Health Services. Policy Research Working Paper (1762). World Bank, Washington, D.C. Manning, W. G, Joseph P. N, Naihua D, and Emmet B. K, Arleen L, and Susan M. M. (1987). Health Insurance and the Demand for Medical Care: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment. American Economic Review 77(3): 25177. Manski, C. and Daniel M (1981). Structural Analysis of Discrete Data with Econometric Applications. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. McFadden, Daniel. (1981). Econometric Models of Probabilistic Choice. In C. Manski and D. McFadden, eds., Structural Analysis of Discrete Data with Econometric Applications. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Newhouse, J (1993). Free for All: Lessons from the RAND Health Insurance Experiment. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Phelps, C. E. (1992). Health Economics. New York: HarperCollins. Smith, M. C., and Garner, D. D. (1974). Effects of a Medicaid Program on Prescription Drug Availability and Acquisition. Medical Care 12(7): 57181. World Bank. (1993). World Development Report 1993. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hitler Essays (1162 words) - Adolf Hitler, Chancellors Of Germany

Hitler Adolf Hitler On April 20, 1889, Klara and Alois gave birth to a son who would eventually become the man the world recognizes today as one of the most notorious men in history. Alois named his fourth son Adolf Hitler. His early childhood was spent under a cloud of normalcy in the small town of Braunau, Austria, a small town across the Inn River from Germany. His mother Klara was a meager housewife while his father a customs official. When Hitler was six his family moved to a place near Linz, Austria. Though Adolf received good marks in elementary school, he slacked severely in high school as his mind wandered to other areas besides academics. His ill-tempered father did not approve of this and had a violent disagreement concerning his son's aspirations to become an artist. Alois wanted Hitler to become a civil servant. This conflict was left unresolved for years and lasted till his father was in his deathbed in 1903. With no one left to stop him, Adolf dropped out of school at the age of sixteen a nd followed his ambitions to become an artist. He spent his time daydreaming, drawing pictures and reading books, while his mother supported him through a widow's pension. In 1907, Hitler went to Vienna to apply to the Academy of Fine Arts. The years in Vienna did not bode well for Hitler. First, he was rejected acceptance to the Academy because the trustees thought his talent was mediocre. Compounding to this rejection was the death of his mother. With his artistic ambitions in shambles, he explored other areas and became interested in politics. He admired the effective leadership and organization of the Social Democratic Party. During his stay in Vienna Hitler was affected by a growing nationalist movement. He developed a belief that no form of government could last if it treated people of different nationalities equally. This helped shaped his budding hatred for Jews and Slavs and the mentality that Germans were superior to all other races. In addition, Hitler spent his free time reading books. He became a student of warfare. This would later prove to be a valuable asset in World War II. With the outbreak of the Great War in the summer of 1914, Hitler quickly volunteered for service in the German Army. He became a great asset in his infantry. He served valiantly as a messenger on the Western Front, taking part in some of the most bloodiest battles. Adolf was injured twice and was twice decorated for bravery. Adolf gained popularity as a result. When Germany surrendered to the Allies Hitler was in the hospital recovering from a temporary blindness incurred to him by mustard gas. He was deeply distraught by the news of the armistice. He believed that the unity of Germany was threatened and that he must attempt to save his beloved country. This invigorated ambition for power coupled with state of despair and turmoil that Germany was left after the war opened the door for Hitler's rise to power. Hitler gave the impoverished, hunger-stricken Germans a glimpse of hope. He promised a return to the glory days when foreign nations paid tribute to Germany. Hitler, the Nationalists, the Communists and others attacked the puppet government established by the Treaty of Versailles. They demanded the punishment for the criminals who signed the treaty. Hitler joined a small nationalist party in 1919, called the German Worker's Party which would later be renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party or the Nazi Party. This group called for the union of all Germans, including the German minorities in countries such as Czechoslovakia. They demanded that citizens of non-German or Jewish origin be deprived of German citizenship. The Nazis also wanted the revocation of the Treaty of Versailles. Due to his extraordinary skill as a politician he quickly became the leader of the Nazi party. Hitler built up the party membership stirring crowds with his speeches. He promised to restore the economy, assure work for all and lead Germany into greatness again. To help him accomplish this, Hitler organized a private army he called the storm troopers. His army fought the armies of the Communist, Social Democrats and other parties who

Cmo queda ley Arizona SB1070 tras decisin de Corte

Cmo queda ley Arizona SB1070 tras decisin de Corte En 2010, el estado de Arizona inicià ³ con Ley SB1070 un empuje para tratar de restringir la inmigracià ³n indocumentada dentro de su territorio, siendo su ejemplo seguido por otros estados como Alabama, Georgia y Utah. Esta ley fue objeto de gran debate polà ­tico y su suerte se decidià ³ en las cortes federales. En este artà ­culo se informa sobre cules provisiones de la ley fueron impugnadas por la administracià ³n del presidente Barack Obama, quà © decidià ³ la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos al respecto y quà © se puede aplicar de la Ley SB1071 en la actualidad y quà © no se puede, por considerarse inconstitucional. Partes de la ley SB1070 de Arizona que aplican Por decisià ³n conocida como Arizona vs. United States y con cinco votos contra tres de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos en junio de 2012 se decidià ³ que es constitucional la parte de la ley SB1070 que concede a los oficiales de policà ­a del estado de Arizona el poder para investigar el estatus migratorio de todas aquellas personas que detiene, arresta o para y de las que se sospeche razonablemente que pueden ser extranjeros indocumentados. Adems, siempre han aplicado porque nunca se les impugnà ³ las provisiones que establecen que el estado de Arizona, los condados y los municipios no pueden limitar la accià ³n de la policà ­a a la hora de aplicar las leyes federales de inmigracià ³n. Lo mismo aplica a la provisià ³n que autoriza castigar a toda persona que es contratada o contrata desde un vehà ­culo. No importa, en este à ºltimo caso, que el que contrate sea un ciudadano estadounidense. La ley convierte a esta actividad en ilegal tambià ©n para à ©l o ella, quien se arriesga a sufrir las consecuencias, incluida la posibilidad de perder el auto desde el que pretendà ­a contratar a una persona que se encontraba en la calle o en una esquina solicitando trabajo. Secciones de la ley SB1070 de Arizona que no aplican Las siguientes provisiones no aplican: En primer lugar, la obligacià ³n para todos los extranjeros mayores de 14 aà ±os y que pasen ms de 30 dà ­as en EEUU de que se registren con las autoridades federales y que lleven consigo en todo momento la documentacià ³n que pruebe que se han registrado. En segundo lugar, la disposicià ³n que consideraba delito tener o buscar un trabajo en Arizona si no se tiene un permiso federal para trabajar. En tercer lugar, la disposicià ³n que autorizaba a la policà ­a a detener a todos los inmigrantes de los que exista sospecha de que han cometido una ofensa que tiene como castigo la deportacià ³n. La situacià ³n migratoria actual en los Estados Unidos Con la llegada a la Casa Blanca del presidente Donald Trump se han producido importantes cambios en materia migratoria en relacià ³n a refugiados, asilados y tambià ©n a migrantes indocumentados. Asà ­, en la actualidad son prioridad para deportacià ³n prcticamente todos los indocumentados. La à ºnica excepcià ³n a esa regla general por el momento son los 750 mil muchachos conocidos como Dreamers y que estn protegidos por el programa de la Accià ³n Diferida, que se conoce por sus siglas en inglà ©s de DACA. Sin embargo, incluso para ellos la situacià ³n es complicada porque el el propio presidente puso fin a ese programa. Los muchachos con DACA aprobado con anterioridad a la decisià ³n del presidente Trump siguen amparados, al menos por el momento, por decisiones judiciales, pero no se admiten aplicaciones nuevas al programa. Por otro lado, los migrantes indocumentados tienen derechos que no pueden ser ignorados y es aconsejable que todos ellos conozcan quà © puede hacer y quà © deben callar en el caso de ser arrestados o detenidos. Sin embargo, mientras el gobierno federal y algunos estados endurecen las medidas para restringir la migracià ³n indocumentada, otros estados mantienen o promueven su proteccià ³n dentro de los là ­mites permitidos a las autoridades estatales o municipales, como por ejemplo, el caso de las ciudades santuario. Otro ejemplo es el de los estados que emiten licencias de manejar para los indocumentados, como es el caso de California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Maryland, Nevada, Nuevo Mà ©xico, Utah, Vermont y Washington, asà ­ como la ciudad de Washington D.C. la capital de Estados Unidos. Por à ºltimo, cabe destacar que dependiendo de las circunstancias de cada migrante, en ocasiones es posible encontrar un camino para regularizar la situacià ³n y obtener una tarjeta de residente permanente, tambià ©n conocida como green card. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal de ningà ºn tipo. Puntos Clave de la Ley SB1070 de Arizona restrictiva de la migracià ³n indocumentada La Ley SB1070 de Arizona fue una de las primeras y duras con objeto de restringir la migracià ³n indocumentada en su territorio. Fue objeto de gran debate y la Corte Suprema decidià ³ que parte de la misma era inconstitucional.En la actualidad estn en vigor y pueden ser aplicadas las siguientes provisiones:La policà ­a puede informarse sobre el estatus migratorio de cualquier persona que para, arresta o detiene y de la que sospeche que puede estar en EE.UU. ilegalmente.La policà ­a de las ciudades y condados no puede impedir la aplicacià ³n de ninguna ley migratoria federal.Es ilegal contratar o ser contratado desde un vehà ­culo.Los migrantes mayores de 18 aà ±os estn obligados a llevar un documento que pruebe que estn en el paà ­s legalmente. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

My Leadership Style Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

My Leadership Style - Essay Example Since some employees who will be part of the new environment originally came from the old system and have hence developed relevant skills therein, employing the kind of leadership I have been exhibiting as a manager would help. Old and new employees will adjust to the new system under a merged organization and will be encouraged to share their ideas, competencies, and skills in order for the betterment of the carrying out of tasks and the organization as a whole. This may be undertaken by identifying the key points of the projector dates when feedbacks are needed about progress. Assurance that the delegated task or project is on track is also needed and must be made certain at all times. Since I am able to see the bigger picture from a far perspective, I can hence introduce solutions and innovations, to which teams can function. As a team player, I am able to encourage teams to work skillfully and cooperatively on managing the projects tasked to them. This is undertaken by delegating them the necessary tasks with me functioning as an overseer and coach. It is also a trait of mine to determine in advance how I will thank and reward the staff persons for a successful completion of the task or project delegated to them. One modification of my leadership style in addressing my situation as a leader at EEST/Ouest is incorporating point systems in job implementation through remunerative awards. This would enhance the level of productivity of employees who are challenged by the new EEST/Ouest work environment.

Investing in Energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Investing in Energy - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that one reason for the oil foreign policy being different from the conventional Prisoner’s Dilemma game is that we are dealing with exchanges in the world’s political economy. One of the most common and fundamental interests of a multi-national corporation is the land rights on which oil can be produced and manufactured. Most of the oil consumed in the world today has moved from one country to another. It is, by far, the largest single commodity in international trade. This is why it is important. The Red Line Agreement of July 31, 1928, is an example in the history of oil co-operation, in which the United States did not get what it wanted in negotiations. Negotiations for the agreement began with the US and Great Britain squaring off for access to oil in the region that is now Iraq. At the end of World War I, the San Remo agreement awarded Britain mandate over Iraq, but the Americans opposed this. They claimed that since the war was won by the Allies collectively, oil exploration rights in the Iraq region should be shared. However, the British refused. Facing this impasse, the seven American oil companies decided to pursue their oil interests by official means through the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC, later known as the Petroleum Company). Thus, negotiations with the TPC began in 1922, with the Americans actively pursuing the open-door policy. Essentially, it was in their interest to be assured that they had access to the oil regardless of the new developments that took place in oil production, in the Mesopotamian region. This was a critical time for the Germans and French since the US was making the transition from being one of the major providers of oil to one of the largest importers. One of the biggest problems for the American group and their pursuit of the open door policy is what is referred to as the â€Å"self-denying clause.† In the Foreign Office Agreement of 1914, the â€Å"self-d enying clause† prohibits owners of TPC from handling the production or manufacturing of crude oil other than through the TPC.

The Scottish Road Network Authority Research Paper

The Scottish Road Network Authority - Research Paper Example 1). Indeed, one basic hurdle to SRNA's senior management's decision to shift a long-standing and all-public service strategy of construction and maintenance to one focused on procurement and contracting out is SRNA's organisational culture. The proposed changes will inevitably lead to redundancies and an explosion in services outsourced. Expectedly, upper management's suggestions are met with great resistance as is shown in provided case. The case for change is, in fact, hard to 'sell' among staff given SRNA's senior management's practices evidenced in poor knowledge management strategies. This report argues that, in order for SRNA to diffuse and manage change effectively among staff, network-based, knowledge-sharing strategies should be put in place. Since devolution, Scotland has barely shifted away from a 'public sector mentality' (Lyall, n.d.). Resistance to propositions by upper management comes, therefore, as no surprise. Placed in a wider context, outsourcing public services - road building services included - is, in fact, a continuation of a set of policies enacted across all U.K. (Lyall). Indeed, just as outsourcing services has generated much opposition since introduction back in 1980's (Dodworth, M. & Constable, M., 2006), SRNA's staff's opposition to suggested changes is only symptomatic of such shift's main arguments: employee As a matter of fact, all three i... THE SCOTTISH ROAD NETWORK AUTHORITY: KNOWLEDGE SHARING 4 retention and rights, Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) and service quality (Dodworth, M. & Constable, M.; Hemson, 1998). As a matter of fact, all three issues are not only a U.K. concern but are spread about as much countries as can be wherever and whenever a case is made for outsourcing (Hemson). Indeed, one can hardly find a similar issue in which almost same concerns are voiced. In SRNA's case, Henry Irving's, Director General's (DG's), practice of surrounding himself with a narrow circle of senior executives adds a particular emphasis on SRNA's case for knowledge management in a wider context of an eminent change. More specifically, SRNA strongly speaks for a case of workplace power structure within which corporate culture as well as knowledge sharing strategies are defined, controlled and set by a minority cohort made up of a DG and a narrow circle of surrounding senior executives (e.g. Charles Hampden, Finance Director). Indeed, corporate culture has been increasingly emphasised as a definitive aspect of corporate style and performance (Schein, 2004; Willmott, 2003). According to McDermott and O'Dell (2001), corporate culture is the 'shared values, beliefs, and practices of the people in the organisation'. Put differently, an organisation's culture is an overarching framework within which all employees fall and are committed to (Willmott). That is, one way management holds sway over workplace power politics is to define how employees should adopt specific codes of conducts supposedly divorced THE SCOTTISH ROAD NETWORK AUTHORITY: KNOWLEDGE SHARING 5 from interpersonal, intradepartmental, and interdepartmental interactions.

What Is The Importance Of Food Security Environmental Sciences Essay

What Is The Importance Of Food Security Environmental Sciences Essay World Food Day, 16 October, highlights the need to ensure that all people have physical and economic access at all times to enough nutritious, safe food to lead healthy and active lives. More than half the worlds population lives in low-income, food-deficit countries that are unable to produce or import enough food to feed their people. More than one-third of all children are malnourished and 6 million children a year die of causes related to malnutrition. Most of the worlds hungry people are found in the developing world, but 34 million live in the developed world. Soil degradation, chronic water shortages, inappropriate agricultural policies and population growth threaten food production in many countries. While growing export crops such as coffee, cocoa and sugar produces export income, it can lead to a decrease in basic food production, causing hardship for people who are poor. Between 1960 and 1990 world cereal production more than doubled, food production increased by one-third per head, daily intake of calories increased by one-third, and real food prices fell by almost half. There is enough food in the world for everyone to have enough to eat, but it is unevenly distributed. Background What is food security? Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to enough safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy lifestyle. (World Food Summit 1996) To be food secure means that: Food is available The amount and quality of food available globally, nationally and locally can be affected temporarily or for long periods by many factors including climate, disasters, war, civil unrest, population size and growth, agricultural practices, environment, social status and trade. Food is affordable When there is a shortage of food prices increase and while richer people will likely still be able to feed themselves, poorer people may have difficulty obtaining sufficient safe and nutritious food without assistance. Food is utilised At the household level, sufficient and varied food needs to be prepared safely so that people can grow and develop normally, meet their energy needs and avoid disease. What happens when people do not have food security? For the more than 800 million people who do not get enough regular, healthy food, ill health and a shorter life expectancy are real risks. Children, and especially very young children, who suffer from food insecurity will be less developed than children of the same age who have had sufficient food. They will most likely be shorter and weigh less, and be less able physically and intellectually, because of poor nutrition. Why is there food insecurity? Poverty Poor people lack access to sufficient resources to produce or buy quality food. Poor farmers may have very small farms, use less effective farming techniques, and/or be unable to afford fertilisers and labour-saving equipment, all of which limit food production. Often they cannot grow enough food for themselves, let alone generate income by selling excess to others. Without economic resources and a political voice, poor farmers may be forced on to less productive land possibly causing further environmental deterioration. Addressing poverty is critical to ensuring that all people have sufficient food. Health Without sufficient calories and nutrients, the body slows down, making it difficult to undertake the work needed to produce food. Without good health, the body is also less able to make use of the food that is available. A hungry mother will give birth to an underweight baby, who then faces a future of stunted growth, frequent illness, learning disabilities and reduced resistance to disease. Contaminated food and water can cause illness, nutrient loss and often death in children. The HIV/AIDS pandemic has reduced food production in many affected countries as productive adults become ill or die. Lacking the labour, resources and know-how to grow staples and commercial crops, many households have shifted to cultivating survival foods or even leaving their fields, further reducing the food supply. Addressing health issues will improve utilisation and availability of food. Water and the environment Food production requires massive amounts of water. It takes one cubic metre (1000 litres) of water to produce one kilogram of wheat and 3,000 litres of water to produce one kilogram of rice. Producing sufficient food is directly related to having sufficient water. Irrigation can ensure an adequate and reliable supply of water which increases yields of most crops by 100% to 400%. Although only 17% of global cropland is irrigated, that 17% produces 40% of the worlds food. Increasing irrigation efficiency and limiting environment damage through salinisation or reduced soil fertility are important for ongoing food availability. Where water is scarce and the environment fragile, achieving food security may depend on what has been called virtual water, that is, importing food from countries with an abundance of water. This may be a more efficient use of a scarce resource. Gender equity Women play a vital role in providing food and nutrition for their families through their roles as food producers, processors, traders and income earners. Yet womens lower social and economic status limits their access to education, training, land ownership, decision making and credit and consequently their ability to improve their access to and use of food. Food utilisation can be enhanced by improving womens knowledge of nutrition and food safety and the prevention of illnesses. Increasing womens involvement in decision making and their access to land and credit will in turn improve food security as women invest in fertilisers and better seeds, labour-saving tools, irrigation and land care. Disasters and conflicts Droughts, floods, cyclones and pests can quickly wipe out large quantities of food as it grows or when it is in storage for later use. Likewise, seeds can be destroyed by such environmental dangers. Conflict can also reduce or destroy food in production or storage as farmers flee to safety or become involved in the fighting. Previously productive land may be contaminated with explosive debris and need to be cleared before it can again be used for food production. Stored food, seeds and breeding livestock may be eaten or destroyed by soldiers, leading to long-term food shortages. Government spending needs to prioritise food security in the aftermath of conflict. Population and urbanisation Population growth increases the demand for food. With most productive land already in use, there is pressure for this land to become more productive. Poor harvests and higher costs lead many poor farmers to migrate to cities to look for work. Expanding cities spread out across productive land, pushing food production further and further away from consumers. This increases the cost of all the activities associated with producing and transporting food, and decreases the food security of the poor in cities. Trade Many poor countries can produce staples more cheaply than rich nations but barriers to trade, such as distance from markets, quarantine regulations and tariffs make it difficult for them to compete in export markets against highly subsidised farmers in rich countries. This deprives poor farmers of income and entire countries of the agricultural base they need to develop other sectors of the economy. In addition, trade imbalances prevent poor countries from importing agricultural products that could enhance their food security. What is being done? Improving food production Increasing the amount of food available is necessary to feed the growing population. The Green Revolution of the 1970s and 1980s led to huge increases in output, largely due to the cultivation of high-yielding varieties of rice and wheat, the expansion of land under production and irrigation, greater use of fertilisers and pesticides and greater availability of credit. In many countries these gains have reached their limit, and social and environmental issues must now be addressed. Further increases in food production depend on better integration of traditional knowledge with research; improving farming practices through training and the use of technology to increase outputs from current land without further loss of productive land; land reform to provide secure access to land for more people; and the provision of low-cost finance to help farmers invest in higher quality seeds and fertilisers and small irrigation pumps. While genetically modified seeds are being hailed as a means of improving crop outputs, there are also concerns about the ownership of seeds, adequate compensation for traditional knowledge and possible side effects. Economic growth and trade liberalisation Increasing food production leads to greater availability of food and economic growth in the domestic and/or overseas markets. Generating income can provide access to more and varied foods and provide cash for use in other areas of the economy, such as small enterprise and manufacturing, which in turn helps reduce poverty. Trade liberalisation is opening up markets slowly, but there are costly barriers to overcome. Work is underway through the Doha Round of multilateral trading negotiations in the World Trade Organisation to make trade rules fair, encourage trade liberalisation and assist developing countries to participate in the global trade environment. Distribution While there are sufficient resources in the world to provide food security for all, policy and behavioural changes are necessary to guarantee a fair share for all people, especially the poor. Building on a series of global conferences, in particular the 1992 International Conference on Nutrition and the 1996 and 2002 World Food Summits, countries have developed national nutrition plans and policies in nine major strategic action areas that: include mainstream nutrition goals in development policies and programmes improve household food and nutrition security protect consumers through improved food quality and safety prevent and manage infectious diseases promote breastfeeding care for the socioeconomically deprived and nutritionally vulnerable prevent and control specific micronutrient deficiencies promote appropriate diets and healthy lifestyles assess, analyse and monitor nutrition situations. The progress towards achieving these goals, however, has been much slower than intended. Recognising the role of women Gender equality is a prerequisite for the eradication of poverty and hunger. Many programs recognise the need for changes in access to food, land, credit, education, health and nutrition training and decision making in order to make effective use of womens roles in agricultural production and food preparation. Food aid The need for food during emergencies such as drought, disaster, population displacement and conflict is addressed by the distribution of basic food supplies and fuel. Early warning systems can predict problem areas, allowing action to be taken to keep people in their homes and help them back to food self-sufficiency as quickly as possible. Food sourced locally rather than internationally minimises the costs and disruption to local markets. In severe situations feeding may be necessary but often food aid is linked with work, health or education to avoid dependency and address the long-term causes of food insecurity.

Impact of Whiteness on Blacks in Toni Morrisons The Bluest Eye Essay

The Impact of Whiteness on Blacks in Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye   Ã‚      Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye does not focus on direct white oppression of a black community, but rather how whiteness is ingrained in the minds of the black community and serves as a destructive force. There are few white characters introduced in the book, but whiteness and the culturally accepted ideal of whiteness as an indication or measure of beauty is ever present. Morrison's first page, The Dick and Jane story, is a clean, simple and perfect example of whiteness. Mother, Father, Dick and Jane are the family and they live in a pretty house with a cat and dog. This is whiteness. Whiteness is nice, clean, happy and simple. Turning the page we soon discover that perfect simplistic whiteness can turn chaotic and destructive. This first shocking introduction to whiteness not only foreshadows the end of the book, but is also the first of many direct examples of whiteness and its potential to consume the mind and destroy the spirit.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Within the first few pages of the book we find Shirley Temple and a white baby doll, both pretty with their blue eyes and creamy skin. That both of these symbols of whiteness are young and introduced to little black children is very significant. Whiteness is known and begins to warp around and take hold of them from the beginning. They are never allowed to entertain or contemplate their own beauty because they are shown early on symbols of pretty and they will never measure up. White baby dolls are loved and Shirley Temple is adored while their black skin, wool like hair and brown eyes are merely tolerated. We learn from Claudia's example that the only way to keep the whiteness from destroying y... ...whiteness is potentially damaging. It is also effective because is demonstrates how black communities self imploded if they internalized the white ideal. This is very powerful. That notion that whites did not need to by physically present but merely symbolically represented in order to undermine the stability and self-image of a black community. Whiteness then did, and does, have the power to destroy if it is internalized and accepted as the ideal--an ideal that is unobtainable and therefor all the more damaging. Works Cited and Consulted: Davis, Cynthia. "Self, Society, and Myth in Toni Morrison's Fiction." Draper 222. Draper, James P., ed. Contemporary Literary Criticism. "Toni Morrison." Michigan: Gale Research Inc., 1994. Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. New York, New York: Plume, 1994. Steiner, Wendy. "The Clearest Eye." Draper 239.

Colorism: Black People and African American Community Essay

Colorism is an issue amongst African Americans that is slowly disunifying the culture. The idea that is constantly reiterated in the African American community is that if you are light skinned you have a better job with more income, more successful, have more relationships, and are deemed less of a threat, essentially living the â€Å"best of both worlds†. If are darker skinned you are jobless or at a job that is not moving you into the future, less successful, passed by a potential mate, and is labeled as a common crook. The ideas about color pigmentation in the African American community all goes back to the original argument made numerous of times: â€Å"White is good, Black is bad†. Slavery is a primary reason why African Americans have this state of mind. During this cruel and demoralizing era, African Americans were subjected to beatings, hard labor, and for some of the women, rape. The results of these malicious rapes led to pregnancy and the women bearing children of the masters. The offspring of the women were still slaves but were offered an education and lived in the master’s house because of their lighter skin. The media frequently reinforce these ideas by what is shown on television. On the news, it is always the dark African American man who is the subject for a manhunt for committing certain crimes. There are just as many white people committing the same crimes yet it is not news because it is not what the media wants the general public to believe. In the movies a lighter skinned African American is more likely to get a more serious role in a movie along a white person, while a darker skinned African American is left to play the evil and more â€Å"ghetto† roles which whites think should be natural for them. In African American music videos it is the much more lighter females who actually get their face seen on a video next to the rapper. The darker skinned female is the one with their back turned to the camera shaking their â€Å"booty†. Relationships in the African American community are also in disarray. More black men are shying away from the darker complexioned females in hopes of finding a light skinned or white woman. To the African American male, a lighter skinned female may be able to bear better-looking children with white features. They are also seen as easier to get along with. The continued success of the light skinned African Americans has created a prejudice against lighter skinned individuals in the culture. Dark skinned males and females are raged because of the fact that they get hired for good jobs. Dark skinned females are mad at lighter skinned females because they are not approached as much as they are. This is a real issue because it is causing bitterness towards one another I the African American culture. The simple fact is that no matter whether one is light skinned or dark skinned, they are still African American. However, because of the features in which a light skinned individual processes, helps them get more ahead, therefore, light skinned African Americans have easier lives than dark skinned African Americans. In order to fully understand why light skinned individuals have easier lives than dark skinned individuals, one must look understand how colors register in the human mind. When a person looks at a color it creates a certain feeling within them. In Ellis Cose’s Rage of a Privileged Class, color plays a very significant role. Cose explains that because of color a white man is likely to be helped more, quoted lower on purchases, shop without harassment, and offered more jobs as opposed to an African American who receives the exact opposite. According to psychology researchers, â€Å"white represents innocence, purity, clean, and good†¦ black symbolizes death, mystery, evil characters, and criminal activities†(Wu 1). Knowing the true meaning of colors explains why many African Americans of a darker skin color are less favored than those of a lighter one. The history of this favoritism for lighter skinned individuals can be dated all the way back to the days of slavery. Slave masters in this era were cold hearted human beings. They would rape unsuspecting female slaves at their own leisure. The outcome of these rapes led to the pregnancy and birth of other slave babies. The children of the salves and masters, often called mullatos were treated better than all the slaves.

Prosperities of Teaching Career from Writer-Elite.com

Prosperities of Teaching Career from Benefits of Being a Teacher There are numerous reasons why people want to work in the sphere of teaching. For some of them, it is not merely a profession but a lifelong mission. Becoming a teacher can be hard as a person needs not only to know the subject inside out but also to be good at communication with people (especially of different age groups). I bet that all of us must have had a teacher who was a special one not like all the others and inspirational in his/ her own way. Very often such special teachers that we have met in high school or college are a kind of inspiration why we choose teaching career for ourselves. This career will never be boring because each day is totally different from the previous ones. Luckily, you are not involved in some tedious manual work and as a teacher you always communicate with different people and have various things to discuss. Every day you answer the questions of your curious and investigative students and you just cant help wondering how clever they are. Moreover, while teaching (even if you are involved in teaching in some nursery or primary school) you discover a lot of new things for yourself. You actually find yourself in the lifelong process of constant learning. What can be better than always having an opportunity to broaden your outlook? Finally, if you really love teaching, what can be better than having a profession that you truly enjoy and derive sheer satisfaction from? By doing what you love, you can help children broaden new horizons and open new doors in front of them. Check out a brief list of perks that teaching has: Teachers know the answers and they are the ones who share knowledge. Isnt it great when people come to you for any advice? Or when they view you as a reliable and trustworthy person with whom they can consult? Teachers have loooong vacations. Wow! Thats really the biggest perk of being a teacher. You dont have to work in summer! Teachers are always in demand. It seems that this profession will be always topical and even if you do not have an official job position, for now, you can always be a private tutor. You can be the one who inspires now. Remember all those great and enthusiastic teachers who inspired you in childhood? You can be the one like that right now. With your passion and enthusiasm, you can inspire your students to strive for the best and to find their niche in life. As a rule, teachers spend fewer working hours than their counterparts. Of course, they have to prepare some materials at home, but all in all its not the same as working in an office. Teaching will help you to become a real expert in your subject field. Even if you start as an inexperienced teacher. At least one year of daily teaching experience with all those explanations of the material will help you know the subject inside out. If you have children, your schedule will allow you to spend more time with them at home (as you wont be teaching late hours). The fact that you love what you do will always keep you motivated at work. You will enjoy such perks as pension plans and health insurance + tuition reimbursements and paid sick leaves. Teachers enjoy a solid paycheck. Besides, they have opportunities of being promoted and receiving salaries higher than average.

Twas The Night Before Christmas Reading Comprehension

Twas The Night Before Christmas Reading Comprehension Twas The Night Before Christmas is one of the most traditional Christmas readings in English speaking countries. Written in 1822 by Clement C. Moore, Twas The Night Before Christmas tells the story of Santas arrival on Christmas Eve at a typical American household. Imagine it is Christmas Eve and you are sitting around the fireplace drinking a nice cup of Egg Nog (a typical Christmas drink made with eggs, cinnamon, milk and other ingredients sometimes including a good bit of rum) anxiously awaiting Christmas Eve. Outside the snow is falling and all the family is together. Finally, someone in the family takes out Twas The Night Before ChristmasBefore reading you may want to review some of the more difficult vocabulary listed after the story. Twas The Night Before Christmas Twas The Night Before Christmas, when all through the houseNot a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;The children were nestled all snug in their beds,While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;And mamma in her kerchief, and I in my cap,Had just settled down for a long winters nap,When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,I sprang from the bed to see what was the matter.Away to the window I flew like a flash,Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snowGave the lustre of mid-day to objects below,When, what to my wondering eyes should appear,But a miniature sleigh, and eight tiny reindeer,With a little old driver, so lively and quick,I knew in a moment it must be St. Nick.More rapid than eagles his coursers they came,And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name;Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen!On, Comet! on Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall!Now dash away! dash away! dash away all!As dry leaves that before the wild hurricane fly,When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky,So up to the house-top the coursers they flew,With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too.And then, in a twinkling, I heard on the roofThe prancing and pawing of each little hoof.As I drew in my hand, and was turning around,Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound.He was dressed all in fur, from his head to his foot,And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot;A bundle of toys he had flung on his back,And he looked like a peddler just opening his pack.His eyes how they twinkled! his dimples how merry!His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry!His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow,And the beard of his chin was as white as the snow;The stump of a pipe he held tight in his teeth,And the smoke it encircled his head like a wreath; He had a broad face and a little round belly,That shook, when he laughed like a bowlful of jelly. He was chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf,And I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself;A wink of his eye and a twist of his head,Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread;He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work,And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk,And laying his finger aside of his nose,And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose;He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle,And away they all flew like the down of a thistle.But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight,Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good-night. Important Vocabulary This version of the story highlights difficult vocabulary in bold. English learners or classes can first learn difficult vocabulary and then move on to listening or reading the story themselves in class. Reading through Twas The Night Before Christmas also makes a great pronunciation exercise for the whole class. The vocabulary is in the order it appears in Twas The Night Before ChristmasTwas It wasstirring movementnestled comfortably in placekerchief handkerchiefclatter noisesash window covering that is pulled down from inside the roomshutters window covering that is opened from outside the windowlustre glow, illuminationsleigh Santa Claus vehicle, also used in Alaska with dogsSt. Nick Santa ClausCoursers Animals which draw a sleighPorch terracedash away move onwards quicklytwinkling a secondbound a jumptarnished dirtysoot black waste material found inside a chimneybundle bagpeddler someone who sells things on the streetdimples indentations on the cheeksmerry happydroll funnyencircled circle aroundbelly stomachdread to be afraid ofjerk quick movementdown of a thistle the light material on a certain type of weed that floats away in the airere before

Selection Strategy for Merino Textiles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Selection Strategy for Merino Textiles - Essay Example This essay stresses that an effective HR Department will provide the company effective people to man the sensitive jobs of selecting qualified personnel for the various jobs of machine operators and an effective workforce for the different machineries in the production of textile and fabric products of the company. The role of the human resource department is significant to the attainment of the organisation’s goals and objectives. The manager has to maintain a good and effective rapport with his employees. The employees too have to establish an effective communication with the customers. Meeting the needs and wants of customers is the job of both the manager and employees. This paper makes a conclusion that the human resource department has to focus on identifying and selecting persons capable of implementing the organisation’s plans. HRD should maintain employee performance and see to it that that they are highly motivated. Without motivation employees cannot function well. Other HRM functions include job analysis, appraisal, and performance standards. Human resource management also determines the number and type of employees needed in the team and where the labor supply should come from. Recruitment, training and development, and assignment of people should all be in accordance with the organisation’s objectives. The organisation’s objectives are crucial to the staffing process.

The Social Contract Theory Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Social Contract Theory - Research Paper Example Locke theory of social contract challenged some conventional forms of government like churches and monarchs because they give little importance and power to the individuals. He proposes his major views about the social contract theory and political system in his writing Two Treatises on Government. In these writings he explained are detail about his views about the liberty and power of the individuals within the state. He believes that the State of Nature is a perfect state because it gives due liberty to the people for their actions and decision. At the same time, it also gives power to the state regarding dealing with the people and their actions that are not in the overall good of the people (Barker, 1980). The social contract theory is believed to be one of the foundation stone of the American political system and it is widely believed that the main features of the US Bill of rights, criminal justice system are also highly influenced from the social contract theory. As explained by the social contract theory, the US bill of right also attempts to create a balance between freedom, rights, and obligations to direct the actions of the individuals towards the overall good of the society. The theory presented by Locke also clarify that all the people are equal and they have equal freedom and rights in the society without any discrimination and biases. Since the law of nature is the base of all the morality, the people are also supposed to follow the principles of morality within their actions and political decisions.... When they realize that the government is not fulfilling the desired role they also have the power to abolish the government that do not work for their benefits (Leonard, 1988). Locke theory of social contract challenged some conventional forms of government like churches and monarchs because they give little importance and power to the individuals. He proposes his major views about the social contract theory and political system in his writing Two Treatises on Government. In these writings he explained are detail about his views about the liberty and power of the individuals within the state. He believes that the State of Nature is perfect state because it gives due liberty to the people for their actions and decision. At the same time, it also gives power to the state regarding dealing with the people and their actions that are not in overall good of the people (Barker, 1980). The social contract theory is believed to be one of the foundation stone of the American political system a nd it is widely believed that the main features of the US Bill of rights, criminal justice system are also highly influenced from the social contract theory. As explained by the social contract theory, the US bill of right also attempts to create balance between freedom, rights and obligations to direct the actions of the individuals towards the overall good of the society. The theory presented by Locke also clarify that all the people are equal and they have equal freedom and rights in the society without any discrimination and biasness. Since the law of nature is the base of all the morality, the people are also supposed to follow the principles of

Cell Structure (Bio slp Mod 1) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cell Structure (Bio slp Mod 1) - Essay Example Additionally, the majority of prokaryotes are unicellular with an exception of a few such as cyanobacteria while eukaryotes are multicellular. These are single-celled prokaryotic organisms that differ from bacteria and eukaryota in many ways. Their size and shape resemble that of bacteria but contain genes and metabolic processes similar to those in eukaryotes. Unlike bacteria, some archaea have irregular shapes. These are prokaryotic organisms that derive their energy from inorganic sources. They are subdivided into two major groups; ammonium oxidizing bacteria (AOB) that oxidize ammonia to nitrite, and nitrate oxidizing bacteria (NOB), which oxidize nitrite to nitrate. Examples of the AOB group are the Nitrosomonas Sp while Nitrobacter Sp belong to the NOB group. These are chemolithotrophs bacteria that utilize ammonium as a source of energy. They oxidize ammonia to nitrite. Examples include the Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrosospira, and Nitrosolobus species. Gram negative bacteria are bacteria that have a thin peptidoglycan (polymer) matrix, which comprises the cell membrane of the organism. Consequently these bacteria do not retain the crystal violet dye used in gram staining technique. On the other hand, gram positive bacteria contain a thick layer of this polymer matrix, thus retain the primary stain in gram staining giving them purple appearance. These are organic compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen elements. These compounds are abundant in nature and occur mostly in the form of crude oil. Hydrocarbons, therefore, are the main source of energy readily available as a combustible fuel. This is a scientific assay that employs the use of live organisms to determine the biological activity of a test substance. These tests are useful in investigating the effects (toxicity) of an element accidently introduced in an ecosystem. For instance, the effect

Saving-investment Behaviour in Pakistan Essay Example for Free

Saving-investment Behaviour in Pakistan Essay Saving and investment are two key macro variables with micro foundations which can play a significant role in economic growth, inflation stability and promotion of employment especially if seen in the context of a developing country. For self-reliance and growth objectives, mobilization of domestic resources and their efficient utilization are the two major policy-oriented focuses today (Khan 1993). National savings are critically important to help maintain a higher level of investment which is a key determinant for economic uplift. Thereby, necessitating the analysis of saving-investment behavior and its determinants for policy implications; this is a demanding area because of continuing debate on the potential role of their determinants. In the United States, the total investment rate rose throughout the 1990s, reflecting mostly a rapid acceleration in the purchase of machinery and equipment by the business sector, notably in real terms. In contrast, the national saving rate remained flat during the 1990s, masking significant offsetting changes in the public and private sector components. As a result, the US current account deficit widened to 4.5 percent of GDP in 2000, before narrowing somewhat in the downturn. In Japan, although both national saving and investment rates trended down during the 1990s, their levels are still well above the OECD average. Such high levels are not easy to justify, especially in the case of the investment considering the weak output growth performance. In the case of saving also, it is not clear that the substantial demographic transition ahead, together with other factors, can fully account for the high saving rate. Parallel declines in saving and investment have left the Japanese current account surplus in a range of 2 to 2.5 percent of GDP. (www.oecd.org/dataoecd/2/40/2726831.pdf). According to this website, there are factors driving developments in investment and saving. The rise in total investment in most countries during the 1990s was largely concentrated in the business sector, where spending on capital goods accelerated sharply, especially in volume terms. In fact, after moving more or less in line with real output throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, real business investment pulled away in the following years in some Countries. The other factor is development in saving rate. After being on a trend decline throughout the 1970s and 1980s, gross national saving rates have stabilized or risen in a large number of OECD countries since the early 1990s. Notable exceptions to this pattern are Germany, where the national saving rate continued to decline until 1995 and has remained flat since then, and Japan, where it has trended down throughout the past decade, although it remains higher than elsewhere. Developments in public-sector saving have been the dominant influence on the direction of changes in national saving in the 1990s. In most countries, both actual and cyclically-adjusted budget deficits have either turned into comfortable surpluses or at least moved in a direction that has contributed to an increase in total national saving. At the same time, the rebound in the government saving rate in the second half of the 1990s has been accompanied by a substantial decline in private-sector saving, in a few cases completely offsetting the rise in public saving. Africa achieved relatively high growth rates in the first decade of the twenty-first century, culminating in a continent-wide average growth rate of 6.1 percent in 2007. Although rates varied across the continent, this relatively fast growth was generally shared, with several countries experiencing growth rates that exceeded their population growth rates, thus leading to increases in per capita income. This rapid growth was generally due to increased investment financed by high commodity prices, resource extraction, foreign direct investment (FDI) and inflows of other foreign resources, as well as macroeconomic stability and better economic management.( Economic Report on Africa 2010 ) According to this report, although, there is scant evidence that inflation reduction in many African countries achievements was accompanied by increased investment, economic growth and diversification, and robust employment creation in these countries. Investment increment contributed to the significant decline in inflation rates in many countries. In Ethiopia, Foreign direct investment (FDI) has been increasing during the last ten years. Out of the total investment projects licensed during 1992-2002, FDI’s share was about 20%. Ethiopia remains an untapped and unexploited market for investors compared to neighboring countries like Sudan and Uganda. France, Germany, Italy, the Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and the United States are the major sources of FDI. Out of the total 392 FDI projects licensed by 2003, 12.7% were in agriculture and mining, 46.57% in manufacturing and processing, and 40.7% in trade, hotels, and tourism. (An investment guide to Ethiopia opportunities and conditions, 2004) According to this investment guide, there is untapped and unexploited Area of investment opportunity. Basically, these opportunities are available in Agriculture and related activities, Health services, Mining, Hydro power, Tourism and Manufacturing for both domestic and abroad investors. Particularly Ethiopian investors also can invest in the financial sector in the country. To support and appreciate investment practice in Ethiopia there is Technical and financial support. The Ethiopian Investment Commission, the Ministry of Trade, the Development Bank of Ethiopia and other government institutions provide financial and technical support for research projects, provide market information, and monitor production and export statistics for the industry. The Ethiopian Manufacturing Industries Association and the Addis Ababa Chamber of Commerce provide the relevant trade and technical information. The Government also encourages floriculture by allocating land and providing infrastructure. (An investment guide to Ethiopia opportunities and conditions, 2004)

Overview of Vagus Nerve Stimulation

Overview of Vagus Nerve Stimulation The vagus nerve is one of 12 cranial nerves that pass information to and from the brain. The vagus nerve is the longest of the cranial nerves, with connections to the brain and many of the organs of the body. Intermittent electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve seems to reduce or prevent seizures. Vagus nerve stimulation involves a surgical procedure to implant an electrical pulse generator in the chest and attach electrodes to the vagus nerve in the neck. A pulse generator is similar to a pacemaker. It isabout the size of a pocket watch and weighs about 25 grams (g). How does vagus nerve stimulation work? The pulse generatoris surgically implanted in the chest just under the skin. This generator is programmed to intermittently transmit small electrical signals via a wire to the vagus nerve in the neck. We do not understand why electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve is effective at preventing seizures. It may be related to changes in the brainstem and thalamus, or the electrical stimulation may intercept the abnormal brain activity associated with seizures. The generator functions automatically 24 hours a day. An external programming wand and software are used by the doctor, to read and alter the stimulation strength and frequency. After the generator is first implanted, the usual starting settings are 30 seconds of stimulation every 5 minutes. The strength of the electrical signal usually starts at 0.25 or 0.5 milliamperes (mA) and is then increased every few months by 0.25 mA. The frequency of the stimulation can also be adjusted, to come on and off more frequently. Patients are also given a magnet, which acts as a switch for the generator. When a patient senses the beginning of a seizure, she can pass the magnet over the pulse generator to deliver extra stimulation. For some people, this extra stimulation can stop a seizure from progressing, shorten a seizure, or reduce the intensity of the seizure. The magnet can also be used to turn the stimulator off temporarily. The battery life of the generator is about six years, after which the device can be replaced. This will require another surgical procedure, similar to the first2. What and who is vagus nerve stimulation best used for? Vagus nerve stimulation has been used to treat partial and generalized seizures in both adults and children. It is considered in the following cases: Anti-epileptic medication does not control seizures effectively. The child is not a good candidate for brain surgery, either because of high risk or because he has various epileptogenic (seizure-generating) areas in his brain. The child is large enough to support the implant. This is usually decided by the neurologist and surgeon. Vagus nerve stimulation should not be used in children with certain cardiac, respiratory, or gastrointestinal problems. The vagus nerve serves the heart, lungs, and stomach, and some existing problems in these areas may lead to complications with vagus nerve stimulation. Vagus nerve stimulation usually reduces seizures but does not often eliminate them completely. Usually it is used together with medication. Use in the Pediatric Population A large group of patients with intractable epilepsy are younger than 12 years, including children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, Dravet syndrome, and other difficult-to-treat epileptic conditions. Morris and colleagues[3]recently provided an evidence-based guideline for VNS in children that is based on a review of off-label use. In 13 class 3 studies involving 470 children with partial or generalized epilepsy, 55% had > 50% seizure reduction with VNS. Similarly, in 4 class III studies of 113 children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, 55% had > 50% seizure reduction. Mood studies were not available for children. (In 2 class 3 studies of 31 adults with epilepsy, significant improvements in standard mood scales were observed.) Children were 3.4 times more likely than adults to develop an infection at the VNS implantation site. What is the procedure? A medical evaluation is necessary to determine if this is a case that may be successfully treated with vagus nerve stimulation. Once it has been decided that your child may be helped by vagus nerve stimulation, the surgeon, anaesthetist, and others on the medical team will explain the procedure to you in detail. Its important that you understand the procedure, its risks, and your childs future care; feel free to ask them any questions you may have. With the help of the treatment team, you should then explain the procedure to your child and help him understand what to expect after the implantation. Your child will need to be admitted into the hospital to install the device. Your child will probably need to be put to sleep under general anaesthetic, and therefore will need to stop eating eight hours before. The operation can be done with a local anaesthetic, but because it is hard for children to stay still, most require a general anaesthetic. The procedure itself takes about one hour. One cut about 5 cm long is made on the left chest wall to implant the pulse generator. Another cut about 5 cm long is made in the neck, through which flexible platinum electrodes are attached to the vagus nerve. Because the vagus nerve also goes to the heart, the generator will be turned on in the operating room so that the surgeon can make sure the device does not interfere with the heart. For the same reason, the electrodes are almost always placed on the left vagus nerve, which has less critical influence on the heart. Your child may be sent home on the same day or kept overnight for observation. You and your child will be taught how to care for the incisions before discharge1. Using vagus nerve stimulation After the pulse generator is implanted, the doctor will start the stimulation, using a wand attached to a laptop computer. The doctor will begin with a low dose of current, given for 30 seconds every five minutes. The strength and duration of the stimulation will be slowly increased, at subsequent doctor visits, to achieve optimum seizure control. The stimulation is delivered automatically, 24 hours a day. Your child will also be given a special magnet for use with the pulse generator. Children who experience auras (a feeling that signals the onset of a seizure) can use the magnet to give an extra burst of stimulation, which may reduce or eliminate an imminent seizure. You can also use the magnet if you see that your child is about to have a seizure. The magnet can also be used to turn off the pulse generator temporarily and to check its operation. The doctor will make sure that you and your child understand how to use the magnet before you leave the hospital. Your child will need to continue taking his medications. The dosage will be kept constant for several months while the generators output current is slowly increased. Once the current has been increased to its optimal level, your childs doctor will consider reducing medication and will discuss a new schedule with you. The benefits of VNS seem to increase over time. In one study:1 After 3 months, the number of seizures decreased by about one-third. After 12 months, the number of seizures decreased by about half. And in 2 out of 10 people, the number of seizures decreased by about three-fourths. For people who can sense when they are about to have a seizure, turning on the VNS using their hand-held magnet can sometimes prevent the seizure. It may also shorten a seizure already in progress. Studies show that VNS may also be effective in children. VNS improved independence, mood, and learning in some children3. What to Expect After Surgery The generator may be turned on the day following the surgery or at the first post-surgical visit. Your child will be reassessed in seven to 10 days for a wound check, and the generator may be turned on or adjusted.Parents will be shown how to use a magnet to control a seizure. Waving the magnet over the generator may stop or shorten a seizure. Children who are implanted with a VNS usually return home the same day following their surgery. Sometimes a hospital stay of one night is necessary2. Regular monitoring Regular monitoring is required to check the generator and battery and to make sure the treatment is working well and is not uncomfortable. The battery life of the generator is about six years, after which the device may be replaced. This will require another surgical procedure, similar to the first Risks The vagus nerve stimulator is considered safe. Mild side effects occur in some people when the device stimulates the nerve. The most common side effects include: Coughing. Throat pain. Hoarseness or slight voice changes. Shortness of breath. In children, vagus nerve stimulation may cause increased hyperactivity2. Conclusion For more than 15 years, VNS has proven a useful adjunct to pharmaceutical therapy in adults and children with intractable epilepsy. In an evidence-based guideline, Morris and colleaguesconcluded that VNS may be considered for treatment of seizures in children with epilepsy, including those with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (level C). Improvements in mood, as well as a sense of control over seizures provided by the magnet, may be added benefits. Adverse events, such as postimplant infection and lead fracture, may occur more often in children than in adults1. As with many pediatric therapies, VNS is not FDA-approved for children. Nonetheless, VNS represents a potentially effective and nonsedating treatment option and should be considered for children with intractable epilepsy. Referances Andrew N,Vagus nerve stimulation for children;Medscape neurology,November 2013.http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/813917_3 Buchhalter JR, Jarrar RG (2003). Therapeutics in pediatric epilepsy, part 2: Epilepsy surgery and vagus nerve stimulation.Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 78(3): 371–378 Schachter SC (2002). Vagus nerve stimulation therapy summary: Five years after FDA approval.Neurology, 59(6, Suppl 4): S15–S20.